Spatial Analysis of Agricultural Waste and By‐Products to Tackle the Water–Energy Nexus in Rural Mozambique

PMCID: PMC12776009

PMID:

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Abstract

ABSTRACT Addressing energy and water management in rural Mozambique is essential for sustainable agricultural development. This study focuses on Nampula Province, where limited access to these resources deepens socioeconomic and environmental challenges. The research promotes sustainability by identifying, planning, and implementing innovative and socially validated solutions to enhance the water‐energy nexus for agricultural growth. In this study, an integrated approach combining geographic information system (GIS) tools and participatory methods is developed to assess and address local needs. The initial phase involved analyzing the rural context through field surveys, stakeholder interviews, community workshops, and site visits to collect and validate data, using tailored questionnaires and digital platforms. In the second phase, collected data are processed using GIS, building a geodatabase with layers such as land use, crop distribution, water demand, energy needs, and locations of processing facilities. QGIS software is used to map resource potential, deficits, and spatial disparities. These analyses provide key insights to guide sustainable interventions, helping identify critical areas and opportunities for optimizing resource use. This integrated and participatory approach can efficiently ensure the development of solutions that are contextually appropriate, technically robust, and socially validated, thereby laying the groundwork for effective and sustainable resource management strategies in Nampula. This study presents a geographic information system‐based, participatory methodology to identify high‐potential zones for agricultural waste valorization in rural Mozambique. By integrating spatial data with local knowledge, it reveals opportunities for bioenergy production and sustainable water use. The findings support circular development strategies, addressing the water–energy nexus while promoting inclusive rural resilience and alignment with global cooperation agendas.

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Full Text

Access to water and energy remains one of the most pressing challenges in many African countries, particularly in Mozambique, where large segments of the population still lack reliable, affordable, and sustainable services [1, 2].
The interdependence between water and energy, commonly referred to as the water‐energy nexus, is further exacerbated by climate vulnerability, institutional fragmentation, and pronounced socioeconomic inequalities. Tackling this nexus requires integrated, low‐cost, and context‐specific solutions that are both technically feasible and socially acceptable [3, 4].
In this context, the transition toward a circular economy offers a strategic opportunity to mitigate environmental degradation while simultaneously enhancing resource efficiency, promoting local empowerment, and fostering climate resilience. The valorization of agricultural residues and by‐products, such as their transformation into bioenergy, biofertilizers, or soil amendments, can play a key role in improving access to clean energy, reducing pressure on ecosystems, and strengthening rural livelihoods [5]. Recent studies have explored the potential of food waste‐derived biochar for environmental remediation, particularly in removing heavy metals from wastewater, highlighting additional opportunities for integrating agricultural by‐products into sustainable resource management [6]. Likewise, circular approaches to water management [7], such as wastewater reuse [8], rainwater harvesting [9, 10], and the integration of water‐saving practices in agriculture [11], proved to enhance water security, reduce environmental impacts, and support sustainable food systems. This study contributes to the literature by combining geographic information system (GIS)‐based spatial analysis with participatory methods to identify priority areas for agricultural waste valorization and integrated water management in Mozambique. The originality lies in the integration of technical (spatial analysis) and social (stakeholder engagement) dimensions to produce a replicable framework that informs both sustainable rural development and local policy‐making. These solutions are also connected to global sustainability frameworks, including the European Green Deal. To clarify its relevance in the African context, the European Green Deal promotes cooperation with African countries through funding opportunities (e.g., investment in renewable energy and sustainable infrastructure), policy alignment (particularly regarding climate adaptation and circular economy strategies), and partnership mechanisms. Such instruments can support African countries, including Mozambique, in implementing context‐sensitive, locally grounded solutions while benefiting from international collaboration and resources [11].
Mozambique, with its predominantly agrarian economy, generates large volumes of agricultural waste, particularly from the cultivation of maize, cassava, sugarcane, and rice [12]. However, these biomasses are often underutilized or poorly managed, contributing to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, soil degradation, and health risks in rural and peri‐urban areas. Moreover, understanding the nexus between agricultural practices and GHG emissions is critical for designing sustainable interventions. Using approaches such as the C‐vine Copula model, Pakrooh et al. [13] provide new insights into how AFOLU (Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use) activities contribute to emissions, underscoring the importance of linking environmental and socioeconomic objectives [13]. At the same time, agricultural activities heavily rely on water resources, which are increasingly affected by unpredictable rainfall, droughts, and limited irrigation infrastructure. Inefficient water use and lack of integrated water management further constrain productivity and resilience in rural areas. In addition, novel methods such as interval meta‐goal programming have been applied to optimize agricultural water‐land use, supporting sustainable planning that integrates productivity, resource efficiency, and environmental goals [14]. This complements circular approaches by providing quantitative frameworks for decision‐making in resource‐constrained contexts.
Territorial and spatial analyses, supported by GIS, have proven effective in identifying renewable energy potential and siting appropriate technologies, while also enabling the assessment of water availability, thus supporting integrated planning across various African contexts [15, 16, 17, 18].
Although GIS‐based methods have previously been applied in Mozambique to assess biomass energy potential [2], map irrigation systems [19], and analyze urban land‐use dynamics [20], a critical research gap exists: territorial analysis that simultaneously valorizes agricultural waste, supports decentralized energy production, enhances soil fertility, and integrates water resource management within a participatory framework. By addressing this gap, the current study advances the field by combining technical spatial methods with stakeholder engagement, aligning with emerging research on integrated resource management in sub‐Saharan Africa. This study addresses this gap by developing a GIS‐based methodology to quantify and map agricultural waste and by‐products in Nampula Province, integrating spatial datasets (agricultural production, land use, population density, infrastructure, water availability, and environmental constraints) with socioeconomic indicators and expert knowledge. Stakeholders consultations and participatory methods were employed to ensure that identified priority areas are socially relevant, technically feasible, and policy actionable. In parallel, qualitative fieldwork, such as semi‐structured interviews with local farmers, cooperatives, and agricultural processing industries, were used to provide critical insights into existing waste management practices, production constraints, and attitudes toward the adoption of innovative technologies. This ensures that the spatial analysis remains grounded in local realities and responsive to community needs.
This study focuses on the Nampula Province in northern Mozambique, specifically on the districts of Meconta and Nacala, which are notable for their agricultural activities (Figure 1).
Meconta and Nacala were selected because they represent two complementary contexts, as well as they reflect the broader Mozambican setting. Meconta is a predominantly rural district with strong smallholder farming traditions, while Nacala combines rural agricultural communities with proximity to an important port city, facilitating agro‐processing and market access. Their selection reflects both empirical relevance and the potential for replicable interventions addressing the water–energy nexus. Nampula Province, covering an area of 79 010 km2, is the most populous province in Mozambique, with a population of approximately 5.76 million people. The province is characterized by a high poverty rate, with 65% of the population living in poverty, and a significant portion of the population experiencing food insecurity [21].
The study area was selected based on a set of criteria including: (i) agricultural relevance; (ii) presence of smallholder farming systems; (iii) availability of biomass residues; and (iv) critical challenges in water and energy access. Spatial and demographic data were retrieved from the National Institute of Statistics of Mozambique [22], while agronomic data were complemented by FAO [23] and IFAD [24] datasets, including information on crop distribution, farming systems, and productivity.
In Meconta district, the administrative posts of Vila Sede de Meconta, 7 de Abril‐Nacavala, and Namialo were selected for analysis (Figure 2). Meconta has a population of 223 760, with a significant portion residing in rural areas.
In Nacala district, the study focused on the rural neighborhoods of Teterranea, Namissica, Nablusa, Mutiva, Mpaco, Mutuzi, and Murrutumua (Figure 2). These specific neighborhoods were chosen to capture the diversity of agricultural practices, water availability, and energy access within the districts. Nacala, also known as Nacala‐Porto, is a coastal city with a population of 287 536. However, the study excluded the urbanized coastal zone, concentrating instead on the surrounding agrarian communities, which are characterized by traditional, rainfed agriculture and limited infrastructure.
Crops cultivated in these areas, such as cassava, maize, and groundnuts, generate significant volumes of agricultural residues, including cassava peels, maize stalks, and groundnut shells. These by‐products are largely unutilized, despite their potential for transformation into bioenergy through processes such as anaerobic digestion or gasification [12]. According to recent studies on biomass valorization [12], these residues represent a potential feedstock for bioenergy production through anaerobic digestion or gasification, providing opportunities to reduce waste, generate energy, and mitigate deforestation.
Water and energy constraints were addressed through a nexus framework that considered the interdependence of resource flows in smallholder systems. Less than 3% of Mozambique's arable land is currently irrigated [25], which makes seasonal rainfall a critical variable for both biomass availability and food security. For example, the Meconta district experiences an average annual rainfall of approximately 857 mm, with the majority of precipitation occurring between the months of October and April, influencing both the availability of water and the agricultural calendar. At the same time, rural energy access remains below 10%, constraining post‐harvest processing, storage, and value addition [26].
The study adopted an integrated and participatory methodological approach aimed at analyzing critical issues related to the use of water and energy resources in the two selected districts of Nacala and Meconta, in Nampula Province, Mozambique. The investigation focused on the agricultural farms and agricultural processing industries, considered strategic for enhancing the resilience of local socioecological systems. The choice of combining GIS‐based spatial analysis with participatory surveys was driven by the need to simultaneously capture (i) the spatial distribution and magnitude of agricultural residues and water resources, (ii) the local practices and socioeconomic constraints, and (iii) the opportunities for community‐driven interventions. Spatial analysis provides precise, reproducible quantitative insights, while participatory surveys ensure context‐specific, socially grounded understanding. The methodological design was inspired by the principles of participatory action research and collaborative territorial planning [27, 28], promoting the active and continuous engagement of local stakeholders in the co‐generation of knowledge and in identifying intervention priorities.
In line with the systemic and multidisciplinary approach recommended in the literature on integrated natural resource management [29, 30], the methodological process was structured into three interlinked phases: i) institutional collaboration and secondary data collection; ii) exploratory territorial analysis and stakeholders engagement; and iii) field surveys and empirical data collection.
Initially, a collaborative network with local institutions was established, which was considered a prerequisite for the effective implementation of field research. The initiative was formally presented to the Serviço Distrital de Actividades Econômicas (SDAE) and the Serviço Distrital de Planificação e Infra‐estrutura (SDPI), which provided institutional support, facilitated access to existing data, and accompanied the research team throughout its territorial activities. This phase contributed to strengthening the social legitimacy of the process and to activating institutional cooperation essential for the effectiveness of subsequent actions [31].
Concurrently, an exploratory territorial analysis was conducted with the objective of identifying priority areas for intervention. This analysis combined the consultation of secondary data provided by local authorities, a critical review of available environmental and planning documents, and a desk‐based analysis of previous experiences in the districts under study. These efforts were complemented by participatory meetings with community representatives, aimed at collecting qualitative information and direct perceptions of major issues related to access and management of water and energy resources. The approach aimed at valorizing local knowledge as a tool for community empowerment as well as an essential component for the contextualized analysis of territorial dynamics [32, 33].
For both questionnaires, clear inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to ensure methodological rigor. Farmers were eligible if they cultivated at least one of the major local crops (e.g., cassava, maize, or groundnuts), owned or managed land in the selected neighborhoods, and were directly involved in residue management and water/energy use. Farmers who were seasonal workers without decision‐making roles or who did not reside in the study area were excluded. For agro‐processing industries, only enterprises formally or informally operating within the districts and processing local agricultural products were included, while businesses unrelated to food production or located outside the study boundaries were excluded. The development of these data collection tools followed a participatory and context‐sensitive design process, considering the specificities of the local rural context, prevailing agricultural practices, and the socioeconomic conditions of the target communities. In particular, the design of the questionnaires adhered to an internal logic of coherence between the research's knowledge objectives and the analytical dimensions to be explored (natural resources, production practices, access to water and energy services, and technical and managerial capacities of local actors). Variables were selected based for their empirical relevance to the water‐energy‐agriculture nexus [12, 23, 24], and included crop type, cultivated area, biomass volume, water consumption, and energy use. These variables also reflect determinants identified in prior literature as critical for designing community‐scale bioenergy and irrigation interventions.
For the fieldwork phase, the questionnaires were digitized using KoboToolbox, an open‐source platform widely employed in humanitarian and environmental research contexts for data collection in low‐infrastructure geographic areas [34, 35]. The choice of this tool allowed the creation of a flexible, interoperable, and field‐adapted data collection system, thanks to its offline capabilities and subsequent synchronization functionality.
Prior to the official launch of the data collection campaign, an intensive training session was held for the field operators responsible for administering the questionnaires. The training had a dual purpose: first, to equip participants with the necessary technical skills to effectively use the KoboToolbox platform (data entry, error management, data synchronization); second, to share methodological guidelines for conducting effective interviews, with particular attention to intercultural communication and the use of the local language. This latter aspect proved essential for ensuring respectful, clear, and culturally appropriate communication with participants, thereby minimizing language barriers and potential data collection biases [36].
The first questionnaire, designed for farmers and agricultural enterprises, aimed to collect detailed information on cultivated crops, the use of biomass derived from agricultural residues, water consumption and management for irrigation, irrigation practices, and energy requirements (Questionnaire S1). The second questionnaire, targeting agro‐food processing enterprises, focused on energy consumption, resource management practices (including water, energy, and raw materials), and the main operational challenges within the local production context (Questionnaire S2).
The adopted methodological approach enabled the collection of reliable and consistent quantitative and qualitative data on the environmental, water, energy, and agricultural conditions of the study areas, while also fostering greater local community engagement in the research process. Such active participation is considered an essential component of investigations in rural settings, contributing to higher ecological validity of the data and strengthening local ownership of the results [27, 29].
Nonetheless, several operational challenges emerged during the data collection phase, affecting both the timing and territorial coverage of field activities. Chief among them were extreme weather conditions: the passage of tropical cyclones CHIDO (December 2024) and DIKELED (January 2025) caused severe damage to road infrastructure, making access to many rural communities difficult. These were compounded by a context of political instability following the presidential elections in October 2024, which led to episodes of protest and social unrest, limiting operator mobility and significantly slowing down operations [37].
Additional logistical complications stemmed from the vast distances between data collection points and the low accessibility of many rural areas, especially during the rainy season (e.g., from November to March). At the outset, a degree of reluctance was also observed among farmers and enterprises to participate in the survey, due to unfamiliarity with research activities and concerns about the use of collected data. This resistance was progressively overcome through community information sessions aimed at clearly explaining the project objectives and building trust in the research team [38].
The spatial analyses underpinning the GIS‐based model were conducted using QGIS (v.3.36.3), a widely recognized open‐source tool for geospatial analysis [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Its robust functions in data integration, management, and visualization made it particularly suitable for application in rural Mozambique. The model, based on a cartographic approach, supports the spatial assessment of territorial dynamics to guide planning in the water‐energy nexus. Within this framework, the analysis focused on identifying two categories of strategic zones. First, potential areas for the sustainable valorization of agricultural waste and by‐products were identified based on the highest availability of biomass resources, adopting the heatmap plugin available in QGIS. These areas were prioritized for the possible siting of valorization technology installations, with considerations for minimizing transport distances, reducing logistical and environmental burdens, and lowering associated greenhouse gas emissions. Second, always adopting heatmap plugin, critical zones with the highest levels of freshwater use for irrigation were delineated, highlighting them as priority areas for water management interventions within the nexus framework. The raster merge tool available in QGIS was used to identify the critical areas and the opportunity hotspots within the water–energy nexus.
The field survey yielded a broad and representative empirical sample of the agricultural and agro‐industrial realities in the districts of Nacala and Meconta. In Nacala, 631 farmers were interviewed out of a total of 1450 registered in the target neighborhoods (43%), while all registered processing enterprises (2 out of 2) were successfully reached, yielding 100% coverage (Table 1). In Meconta, 60 farmers were surveyed—exceeding the official number of registered producers (54)—due to the intentional inclusion of six previously undocumented agricultural enterprises, identified through local knowledge and considered operationally relevant. Similarly, 26 processing enterprises were surveyed in Meconta, compared to 24 officially recorded, indicating the widespread presence of informal economic actors not captured by institutional databases—a phenomenon commonly observed in rural sub‐Saharan contexts [45].
The spatial distribution of the sample revealed a marked concentration of agricultural activity in the neighborhoods of Mutuzi and Namissica, which together accounted for over 32% of all interviews. These were, followed by Nablusa, Teterranea, Mpaco, and Mutiva. In contrast, peripheral zones and the municipal center of Meconta showed lower levels of representation (Figure S1). This pattern highlights a higher agricultural density in semi‐peri‐urban areas, where farming practices tend to be more established and structured.
From a socioproductive perspective, the surveyed population was predominately composed of individual farmers who made up 84.42% of the sample. Organized forms of agricultural activity were minimally represented (Figure S2): informal associations accounted for 9.38%, while structured agricultural enterprises comprised less than 5%. Notably only a single cooperative was identified across the entire sample, underscoring the institutional and cultural barriers that hinder the development of cooperative models. Despite this, existing research indicates that associative structures are generally more effective in promoting sustainable practices, improving access to credit, and enabling the collective valorization of agricultural production [46].
Agricultural practices among the surveyed farmers were predominantly oriented toward monocropping, with over 70% of respondents cultivating a single crop. As already mentioned, the primary crops included maize, cassava, soybeans, and millet. Only 27% of farmers reported engaging in polyculture, and fewer than 34% employed intercropping techniques. This indicates limited uptake of agroecological practices, despite substantial evidence that intercropping—particularly cereal‐legume systems—can enhance soil fertility and bolster resilience to climate‐related stresses [47, 48]. Agriculture remains poorly integrated with livestock rearing: only 3% of farmers (21 out of 691) practiced mixed farming, primarily involving small‐scale goat and poultry rearing. The overwhelming majority (668 cases) focused exclusively on crop production. The limited prevalence of integrated farming systems in Nacala and Meconta can be attributed to several factors, including limited land availability, lack of technical knowledge, absence of veterinary support, and restricted access to start‐up capital.
Farmers in both districts typically follow a dual cropping cycle per year, taking advantage of both the rainy and dry seasons. However, the continuity and productivity of these cycles are significantly hindered by limited water availability—a critical structural constraint within the local agricultural system. Data revealed a concerning gap in irrigation infrastructures: 61.76% of farmers (428 out of 691) rely entirely on rainfall, which is both highly variable and unreliable (Figure S3). Only 34.92% (242 respondents) reported using any form of irrigation, and even among these, irrigation is almost exclusively manual. This leads to low water‐use efficiency and high labor demands, further limiting the potential for year‐round agricultural productivity.
The adoption of advanced irrigation technologies remains extremely limited: only five farmers reported using pressurized or drip irrigation systems, and just one association in Nacala owns a solar‐powered irrigation pump (Figure S4). This scarcity of modern irrigation infrastructures significantly restricts the productivity potential of local agriculture and exacerbates its vulnerability to climate‐induced risks. As highlighted by FAO (2021) [49] and the IPCC (2022) [50], the implementation of appropriate irrigation technologies—such as renewable‐energy‐powered micro‐irrigation systems—represents a critical strategy to enhance agriculture resilience, reduce rainfall dependence, and optimize water use in vulnerable regions such as northern Mozambique.
Similarly, mechanization levels are remarkably low: approximately 98% of farmers carry out land preparation operations exclusively using manual tools, with only four interviewed farmers reporting the use of tractors or other mechanical equipment (Figure S5). This widespread lack of mechanization limits agricultural productivity and places a significant physical burden on farmers—particularly women, who represent a large proportion of the rural labor force. In line with FAO (2016) guidelines [51], the introduction of lightweight, context‐appropriate mechanization can enhance agricultural efficiency, reduce manual labor, and support sustainable, climate‐resilient practices.
Post‐harvest practices indicate a production system largely focused on immediate sales, with minimal investment in storage or processing infrastructure. Nearly half of the farmers (48.77%) sell their harvests immediately after collection, while 46.18% primarily retain produce for household consumption, reflecting a subsistence‐oriented approach rather than market integration (Figure S6). Only a small fraction (6.93%) engages in primary processing, which is typically rudimentary and often lacks adherence to quality standards.
Regarding the territorial distribution of interviews within Meconta district, the majority took placed in the municipality of Meconta (16 interviews, or 57.14%), followed by 7 Abril‐Nacavala (9 interviews, or 32.14%). In the neighborhoods of Teterranea, Namialo, and Mutuzi each accounted for one interview (3.57%), reflecting the relatively sparse presence of agro‐processing industries in these areas (Figure S7).
The surveyed agro‐processing industries reflect a predominantly private and informal productive structure, with a marked absence of cooperatives. The most common equipment includes maize and cassava mills, cashew and peanut shellers, and rice and cereal dehuskers. However, the production of fortified flours—recognized for their role in combating child malnutrition [52]—is virtually absent due to limited access to blending technologies and a general lack of awareness about nutritional benefits of such products.
From an energy perspective, agro‐processing activities in both districts reveal an almost complete lack of energy integration. Survey data show that 97.98% of enterprises operate without any form of energy input (Figure S8). Only 1.3% of operator's report using energy—primarily through outdated, inefficient equipment such as mills and shellers powered by unstable grid connections or fossil fuels (diesel, paraffin). Where energy is used, it often results in high operational costs and increased environmental impacts due to CO2 emissions and reliance on non‐renewable resources. In a few isolated cases, biomass‐ or wood‐fired boilers fueled partly by agro‐industrial residues were reported, suggesting a marginal but potentially scalable opportunity for circular energy practices and decentralized self‐generation.
Field data analysis indicates that the total cultivated area across the Meconta and Nacala districts is approximately 831 000 ha, with Meconta accounting for 42.7% and Nacala for 57.3%. The most intensively cultivated neighborhoods are Namialo and 7 de Abril‐Nacavala in Meconta, and Mpaco and Namissica in Nacala (Figure 3). The total annual irrigation water use across both districts amounts to approximately 4.98 million liters. However, a significant imbalance is observed: Nacala consumes 98.6% of total water use, despite its cultivated area being only moderately larger than Meconta's. This discrepancy suggests that irrigation water consumption is more strongly influenced by crop types, irrigation practices, and local climatic conditions than by cultivated area alone. Neighborhoods such as Teterranea and Mutiva show irrigation volumes closely aligned with their cultivated area, indicating relatively stable water demand per hectare. Conversely, Mutuzi exhibits disproportionately high‐water consumption, likely due to water‐intensive crops or inefficient irrigation practices. Namialo, on the other hand, exhibits notably low irrigation water use despite a large cultivated area—potentially reflecting more efficient irrigation systems or the predominance of low‐water‐demand crops.
As shown in Figure 4, among the crops cultivated in the Meconta and Nacala districts, millet is the most widely cultivated, covering on average 26.9% of the total agricultural land. Its prevalence is especially evident in neighborhoods such us 7 de Abril‐Nacavala and Namialo, where it accounts for over half of the cultivated area. Cassava follows with 16.4%, underscoring its role as a calorie‐dense, resilient staple well‐suited to diverse agroecological conditions. Sesame and beans, although more moderately represented (11.3% and 8.9%, respectively), are consistently found throughout the region, suggesting their importance both as dietary staples and cash crops. Interestingly, some crops display highly localized concentration. Interestingly, there are also cases where a specific crop is intensely cultivated in only one area while being almost entirely absent elsewhere. A clear example is seen in Vila Sede de Meconta, where a single crop covers 40% of the local cultivated area but contributes just around 4% when averaged over the entire region. These localized patterns highlight how agricultural choices can vary sharply even within a relatively compact territory, influenced by factors such as soil conditions, market access, tradition, or local expertise. The result is a heterogeneous agricultural landscape, where certain crops dominate widely, while others remain confined to specific areas.
Analysis of crop‐specific irrigation requirements reveals substantial variability. In Mutiva, garlic exhibits the highest water demand, exceeding 250 L/ha, well above the average (Figure 5). Similarly, pumpkin and lettuce in Mutuzi reach peaks of approximately 180 L/ha and 120 L/ha respectively, marking this neighborhood as a hotspot of water‐intensive cultivation. Peanuts also show high variability, with water needs rising to around 160 L/ha in Nablusa, while remaining under 50 L/ha in other areas. In contrast, cassava and millet consistently require less than 20 L/ha across all neighborhoods, confirming their status as low‐input, drought‐tolerant crops suitable for regions with limited water resources. Beans, cabbage, and sweet potato fall in a moderate irrigation range of 30–70 L/ha, with relatively stable water needs.
The distribution of crop‐specific irrigation needs across the neighborhoods reveals significant heterogeneity in agricultural water dependency (Figure 6). In Mutiva, garlic alone accounts for approximately 82% of total water demand, marking it as a highly water‐intensive cropping system. Similarly, in Namialo, beet represents about 88% of local irrigation needs, underscoring a heavy reliance on a single crop. These monocultural trends can heighten vulnerability to water shortages, particularly in regions with limited irrigation infrastructures. Conversely, neighborhoods such as Tererranea and Namissica exhibit more diversified irrigation profiles. In Tererranea, spinach and peanut are the primary water‐consuming crops, accounting for approximately 25% and 23% of total irrigation demand, respectively. Additional contributions from cabbage, onion, and rice—collectively making up 10–12%—further highlight a well‐distributed water use pattern across several crops. Namissica also exhibits a broad distribution, with lettuce (29%), pumpkin (19%), and peanut (11%) forming the core of water consumption. This composition suggests a deliberate mix of crops with varied but moderate irrigation needs, contributing to a more resilient agricultural system. Nablusa presents a semi‐diversified structure: with banana contributing about 22%, onion 19%, and peanut 23%, reflecting a moderate concentration in a few crops but with some level of diversification. Mpaco is characterized by a substantial share of spinach (33%) and cabbage (27%), together accounting for over 60% of total irrigation needs. 7 de Abril‐Nacavala and Murrutumua both show a strong presence of cassava, which comprises 45% and 39%, respectively, of local irrigation demand. Although cabbage and garlic are also present, their shares are comparatively minor. These neighborhoods appear to emphasize moderately water‐demanding crops within a less diversified framework. Mutuzi, despite having a smaller cultivated area, shows a relatively balanced irrigation profile led by lettuce (26%), pumpkin (21%), and banana (11%). This distribution suggests a well‐integrated mix of vegetable crops with moderate irrigation needs, offering a degree of buffer against water stress or crop failure.
Data on land use distribution (Figure 7) reveal that Namialo is covered by the largest production—defined as the sum of land allocated to both crops and livestock—spanning 157 501.5 ha. The landscape is heavily dominated by millet, which accounts for over half of the land use (50.73%), followed by sesame (20.63%) and beans (12.38%), indicating a clear orientation toward drought‐resistant staple crops. Livestock, however, occupies only 1.02% of the area, reinforcing a crop‐dominated land use structure. In comparison, 7 de Abril‐Nacavala with 139 120 ha also shows a major emphasis on millet (49.60%) and sesame (32.71%), but with a modest presence of cassava (8.99%) and a slightly greater share of land used for livestock (2.24%), suggesting a modest integration of animal production into the system. These patterns likely reflect agroecological conditions suited to resilient, low‐input crops, possibly linked to semi‐arid zones.
Concerning livestock waste production (Figure 8), Namialo records the highest output at 25 630 kg, with an overwhelming 99% derived from poultry and just 1% from goats. Mpaco follows closely with 21 300 kg, primarily composed of goat effluents (69%), while pigs contribute 31% and poultry only 1%. Namissica and Mutiva also report notable total livestock waste volumes—6000 and 1000 kg, respectively, both entirely attributable to goat farming, suggesting a reliance on small ruminants for animal production in these areas. In contrast, 7 de Abril‐Nacavala presents a lower total of 1345 kg, but with a more balanced distribution: 59% poultry, 26% goats, and 15% pigs, indicating a more diversified livestock system. Vila Sede de Meconta registers a modest 200 kg, with pigs accounting for (60%) and poultry (40%). No livestock waste production is recorded in Teterranea, Nablusa, Mutuzi, and Murrutumua, pointing to the absence of significant or intensive livestock activities in these localities. These findings underscore the heterogeneous nature of livestock waste generation across the region, shaped by differences in livestock type, production intensity, and management systems.
Collected data were processed and standardized to create a unified geospatial database to enable comprehensive GIS‐based spatial analyses. All surveyed agricultural entities—including farms and agro‐processing industries—were georeferenced using GPS coordinates (Figure 9), providing a precise spatial foundation. This geospatial layer was further enriched with primary survey responses and composite indicators derived from the cleaned dataset, facilitating a detailed, multidimensional territorial analysis of agricultural and livestock patterns in the Meconta and Nacala districts. To preserve geographic specificity, all assessments were conducted separately for each district.
Figure 9 illustrates the contrasting spatial distribution of agricultural actors within the two districts. In Meconta (Figure 9a), 60 farms and 26 agro‐processing industries cluster prominently along primary transportation routes and within key urban centers such as Namialo and 7 de Abril – Nacalava. This spatial concentration suggests a synergistic relationship between agricultural production and processing nodes, most probably supported by accessible transport infrastructure and fostering a more integrated agri‐food system.
In stark contrast, Nacala (Figure 9b) exhibits a markedly different spatial and structural pattern. Although the district hosts a substantially higher number of farms (631), it contains only two agro‐processing industries. The farms are more geographically dispersed but still align along major road networks and are concentrated in neighborhoods like Murrutumua, Mpaco, and Mutiva. This pronounced imbalance highlights a critical bottleneck in the agricultural value chain, where robust primary production is undermined by an underdeveloped local processing infrastructure, potentially forcing producers to depend on external markets for downstream activities.
The spatial analysis of cultivated agricultural land (Figure 10) highlights important territorial distinctions in agricultural intensity between Meconta and Nacala districts.
In Meconta (Figure 10a), agricultural land use is concentrated in peripheral neighborhoods, particularly Namialo and 7 de Abril‐Nacalava, which fall into the upper intensity class (62 500–155 900 ha). The central Meconta neighborhood, by contrast, remains in the lower land‐use class (0–62 500 ha), suggesting limited cultivation activity. This bimodal pattern indicates that only a few areas drive the district's agricultural performance, probably linked to more favorable agroecological conditions or better land access at the margins of the district.
In Nacala (Figure 10b), a more diversified and evenly distributed land‐use pattern emerges, with three cultivation classes (0–42 513, 42 513–59 030, and 59 030–108 395 ha). Key neighborhoods such as Mpaco and Namissica are clearly the most agriculturally active zones, corresponding with other high‐performing indicators like production output and residue generation. The overall fragmentation and spatial spread of cultivated areas in Nacala may reflect a smallholder‐dominated agricultural system and heterogeneous land tenure structures, in contrast to Meconta's more consolidated but spatially limited cultivation footprint.
This spatial land‐use distribution aligns closely with patterns observed in irrigation water consumption (Figure 11), production output (Figure 12), livestock‐related land use and farming (Figures 13 and 14), as well as residue and livestock waste availability (Figures 15 and 16). In Meconta, production is tightly linked to a few cultivated hotspots, particularly Namialo and 7 de Abril‐Nacalava. In Nacala, the more dispersed but intensive cultivation suggests a broader agricultural base and potentially more resilience to shocks or localized resource constraints.
Another critical parameter analyzed at the territorial level—based on data from stakeholder interviews—was irrigation water consumption, which provides insights into agricultural intensity, crop water demand, and resource accessibility (Figure 11). The comparison between Meconta and Nacala districts reveals stark differences in both the volume and spatial distribution of irrigation use.
In Meconta, irrigation remains modest and spatially limited, with only the neighborhoods of Namialo and 7 de Abril‐Nacalava reaching the upper range of consumption (22 905–45 810 L) (Figure 11a). The central neighborhood of Meconta records even lower usage (<22 905 L), indicating a predominantly rainfed agricultural system or the cultivation of low‐water‐demand crops such as millet and sesame. This limited irrigation footprint may also reflect constraints in infrastructure or water resource availability, further contributing to the district's overall lower agricultural productivity.
In sharp contrast, Nacala exhibits substantially higher irrigation volumes, pointing to more intensive or extensive cultivation practices. The neighborhood of Mutuzi stands out with peak usage exceeding 2.4 million liters, the highest recorded in the analysis (Figure 11b). Other areas such as Teterranea, Mutiva, and Mpaco also demonstrate significant water consumption (319 670–751 350 L), consistent with the district's high‐output zones and crop diversification. This pattern suggests either the cultivation of water‐intensive crops (e.g., sugarcane, onions, cabbage) or better access to surface or groundwater resources and irrigation technologies.
Building upon the assessment of cultivated areas, an evaluation of agricultural production levels and resulting by‐products was conducted to understand spatial disparities and valorization potential (Figure 12). The analysis reveals marked contrasts between the Meconta and Nacala districts, not only in the volume of production, but, also, in its distribution and concentration. In Meconta, most neighborhoods fall into the lowest production category (0–63 750 kg), reflecting generally low agricultural yields. Only 7 de Abril‐Nacavala and Namialo, both peripheral neighborhoods, exceed this threshold, underscoring the limited productivity of the district (Figure 12a). This low output aligns with earlier findings on land use and crop specialization, where millet and sesame dominate but do not translate into high‐volume production. The relatively limited integration of livestock and the modest use of high‐value crops, such as soybeans (confined to Vila Sede de Meconta), further constrain overall agricultural output.
By contrast, Nacala shows a broader range and higher intensity of production, with several neighborhoods far surpassing Meconta's maximum levels (Figure 12b). The Namissica area reaches the highest yield class (840 184–1 025 917 kg), driven by both the extent of cultivation and crop diversity. Mpaco and Mutiva also register significant yields (469 385–840 184 kg), suggesting more intensive, better‐resourced, or technically supported farming systems. This pattern aligns with land use trends that highlight Nacala's diversified and locally intensive agriculture, particularly in neighborhoods with large cultivated areas and moderate to high levels of crop diversity.
An integrated assessment of cultivated land and livestock‐related areas in the Meconta and Nacala districts reveals pronounced spatial and functional differences in agricultural practices, crop specializations, and livestock systems (Figures 13 and 14).
The inclusion of livestock land adds another dimension to the land‐use profile (Figures 13a,c and 14a,b). In Meconta, livestock land use is more uniformly integrated across neighborhoods, though actual land shares remain modest. The central Meconta neighborhood allocates 12% of its 66 540 ha to livestock—the highest in the district—despite specializing in soybean and sesame. In contrast, Namialo allocates only 2% of its land to livestock and 7 de Abril‐Nacavala about 5%.
Figure 14 further illustrates these disparities: Meconta neighborhoods such as Meconta and 7 de Abril fall into the highest livestock land use category (1602–4040 ha), while Namialo remains in the lowest. In Nacala, only Namissica exceeds 3700 ha, while most neighborhoods are either moderate (100–3700 ha) or minimal (<100 ha). Livestock headcount data (Figure 13b,d) reveal that land allocation does not always align with actual animal populations, indicating potential underutilization or informal practices.
The spatial analysis of agricultural residues and livestock waste (Figures 15 and 16) reveals significant differences between Meconta and Nacala districts, reflecting broader disparities in cropping intensity, livestock distribution, and agro‐ecological systems. Based on cultivated area, production volumes, and livestock distribution, both agricultural residues and by‐products, as well as livestock waste, show distinct territorial patterns.
In Meconta (Figure 15a), agricultural residues are highly localized, with Namialo emerging as the only area with notable residue volumes (13 318–33 477 kg). The remainder of the district, including 7 de Abril‐Nacalava and central Meconta, registers significantly lower outputs (0–13 318 kg), suggesting limited crop diversity or lower production intensities across most of the territory. Conversely, Nacala presents a more spatially diverse and quantitatively higher residue profile (Figure 15b). The highest concentrations are found in Mpaco and Mutiva, with volumes reaching up to 157 271 kg. Several other neighborhoods—such as Teterranea and Mutuzi—also report moderate levels of residue generation, pointing to a more intensive and heterogeneous agricultural landscape. These patterns underscore Nacala's broader crop base and higher productivity, which also suggest greater potential for residue valorization and circular economy applications.
Livestock waste generation follows a similar district‐level divergence (Figure 16). In Meconta (Figure 16a), only Namialo again stands out, with waste volumes ranging from 1345 to 25 630 kg, while all other neighborhoods produce minimal quantities (0–1345 kg). In contrast, Nacala (Figure 16b) demonstrates a more dispersed pattern of livestock waste generation. Although most areas report low outputs (0.1–1000 kg), three localities—Mpaco, Namissica, and Mutiva—exhibit significantly higher volumes, reaching up to 21 300 kg. This more even spatial distribution may reflect better‐integrated or more diversified animal husbandry systems, and potentially more favorable conditions for decentralized waste‐to‐resource initiatives such as biogas production or composting.
Together, Figures 15 and 16 indicate that while Meconta's resource recovery potential is largely concentrated in Namialo, Nacala offers multiple hotspots for agricultural residue and waste utilization, suggesting a greater scope for implementing circular economy strategies at a district‐wide scale.
Finally, the analysis of processed product volumes and crop prioritization (Figure 17) confirms a significant disparity between the agro‐industrial capacities of Meconta and Nacala districts. In Meconta (Figure 17a), processing volumes are markedly higher, particularly in the neighborhoods of 7 de Abril‐Nacavala and Vila Sede de Meconta, where annual outputs reach approximately 2 743 200 and 1 986 850 kg, respectively. Namialo, though smaller in scale, still contributes about 23 000 kg annually.
In contrast, Nacala's agro‐industrial development remains rudimentary (Figure 17b). Only two neighborhoods—Mutuzi and Teteranea—reported any processing activity, with annual volumes limited to 1000 and 230 kg, respectively. Processing in both areas is confined to just two crops: cassava and millet. In Mutuzi, cassava accounts for 60% (600 kg/year) and millet 40% (400 kg/year) of total processed volume. In Teteranea, cassava dominates even more strongly, representing 70% (161 kg/year) compared to 30% (69 kg/year) for millet. The narrow product range and low output volumes underscore the limited industrial infrastructure in Nacala, despite its high levels of primary agricultural production. This disparity highlights an unrealized potential for agro‐industrial expansion and suggests a strategic opportunity to enhance local value chains and reduce post‐harvest losses through improved processing capabilities.
This methodology builds on prior research that emphasizes the integration of spatial analysis and participatory approaches in resource management [6, 13, 14], extending these concepts to the context of rural Mozambique. While previous studies have highlighted the potential of biochar and waste valorization for environmental remediation and climate mitigation, this study contributes by linking residue availability directly with water‐energy dynamics in a geospatially explicit framework, providing actionable insights for planning sustainable interventions.
The heatmaps for cultivated surface area in Nacala and Meconta reveal distinct regional patterns of agricultural land use intensity (Figure 18).
In Meconta (Figure 18a), the north‐eastern and south‐eastern regions, particularly near Namialo, exhibit the most extensive cultivated areas. Smaller yet intensive agricultural clusters are also observed in the northwest. Conversely, the southwestern part of the district, including 7 de Abril‐Nacalava, remains largely underutilized, with cultivated land falling in the lowest class (≤31.13 ha). These spatial disparities suggest uneven land development and possible inefficiencies in resource allocation.
In Nacala (Figure 18b), agricultural activity is highly concentrated in the southern and central neighborhoods—such as Murrutumua, Murrupelane, Teterranea, and Namissica—where cultivated areas often exceed 12 734.86 ha, falling into the highest intensity class. In contrast, the northern neighborhoods such as Mutiva show minimal cultivation, pointing to underutilized land and potential development opportunities.
The heatmaps depicting agricultural production volumes further illustrate spatial heterogeneity across the two districts (Figure 19).
In Meconta (Figure 19a), the highest production levels—exceeding 15 200.91 tons—are concentrated in the north‐eastern and south‐eastern areas near Namialo. Meanwhile, vast portions of the district, including 7 de Abril‐Nacalava, fall within the lowest class (≤94.30 tons), indicating low productivity despite available land.
In Nacala (Figure 19b), the production distribution is broader and more consistent, with the southern and central neighborhoods such as Namissica and Teterranea, showing high outputs (above 50 348.50 tons). These regions represent intense agricultural activity, supported by both extensive cultivation and infrastructure.
The comparison of irrigation water consumption (Figure 20) highlights substantial differences in water use patterns between the two districts, helping to identify areas of concern.
In Meconta (Figure 20a), irrigation levels are generally low. Even in Namialo, which has the largest cultivated area (157 501 ha), water use remains moderate, probably due to the prevalence of drought‐resistant crops such as millet and sesame. Neighborhoods such as Meconta town and 7 de Abril‐Nacalava consume less than 1500 m3, suggesting limited irrigation infrastructure or reliance on rain‐fed agriculture.
By contrast, Nacala (Figure 20b) demonstrates more intensive irrigation use. Neighborhoods such as Mpaco and Namissica exceed 27 500 m3 in water consumption, probably reflecting the cultivation of water‐intensive or higher‐value crops. This implies a more diversified and resource‐intensive agricultural system, possibly benefiting from improved water access.
The heatmaps illustrating the spatial distribution of agricultural wastes and by‐products in the districts of Meconta and Nacala (Figure 21) form a central component of the territorial analysis. These visual representations are particularly valuable for identifying priority areas with high potential for bioenergy production, especially through the valorization of crop residues. By incorporating spatial data on land use patterns, crop typology, agricultural output, and waste generation, the heatmaps provide a spatially explicit understanding of bioresource availability, supporting informed decision‐making for the deployment of community‐scale, sustainable technologies.
In Meconta district, patterns of agricultural waste generation are localized yet significant. As illustrated in Figure 21a, the north‐eastern sector near Namialo and parts of the south‐eastern zone show the highest estimated residue outputs, ranging from 494.48 to 2870.29 tons. These areas are characterized by relatively intense agricultural activity and are considered strategic candidates for the implementation of bioresource recovery technologies.
Figure 21b presents a more spatially complex picture in Nacala district, where higher agricultural intensity and larger cultivated surfaces produce broader patterns of bioresource availability. The southern and central zones display the highest concentrations of agricultural waste, exceeding 2870.29 tons. Key neighborhoods such as Teterranea, Namissica, and Mpaco emerge as bioresource hotspots, combining both expansive farmland and intensive farming practices.
In Meconta, three opportunity hotspots have been identified based on this integrated spatial analysis (Figure 22). These zones are distributed across distinct neighborhoods and exhibit sufficient agricultural waste availability combined with moderate water demands, making them prime candidates for community‐level technology deployment such as biogas production, composting, or multiresource hubs.
While Meconta offers promising areas for intervention, the analysis also reveals critical zones of concern, especially regarding high irrigation water consumption. In Figure 23 three zones are identified, where water demand is disproportionately high and may pose long‐term sustainability risks. Of particular interest is the westernmost area, which lies adjacent to a natural wetland. This location could potentially serve as an alternative water source, provided that appropriate and sustainable infrastructure is developed (Figure 24).
Compared to Meconta, Nacala exhibits a more intensive agricultural landscape and a denser network of production zones. Figure 25 identifies nine high‐potential zones across seven neighborhoods with significant agricultural waste availability. These zones are well‐suited for bioenergy generation, organic fertilizer production, and other circular economy strategies.
However, this potential is tempered by intensive irrigation practices. Figure 26 highlights seven zones under high water stress, underscoring the need for urgent resource planning to prevent depletion of local aquifers and surface water sources.
The overlay in Figure 27 reveals that several zones are subject to both high bioresource availability and high‐water consumption. These dual‐priority areas are critical to future planning efforts. Effective interventions here could maximize energy output while addressing water conservation and climate resilience goals.
Importantly, while these findings are specific to Meconta and Nacala, the methodology and insights are generalizable to other rural districts and peri‐urban areas in Mozambique and across sub‐Saharan Africa. Similar patterns of biomass‐water mismatch and high‐value dual‐priority zones are likely to occur in regions facing comparable climatic, infrastructural, and socioeconomic challenges. This situates the study within the broader literature on sustainable agricultural waste management and circular economy applications, extending the practical relevance of GIS‐based participatory approaches for planning integrated water‐energy interventions [6, 13, 14]. By adapting the GIS‐based approach and participatory engagement model, planners in other districts can prioritize interventions, allocate resources efficiently, and replicate circular economy strategies in contexts with comparable challenges. This spatially driven analysis reaffirms the importance of multivariable geographic planning in advancing sustainable agriculture and supporting the energy transition in Mozambique. By integrating data on waste availability, land use intensity, and water stress, the heatmaps act as essential decision‐support tools for stakeholders, policymakers, and researchers.

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"[{\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0001\", \"gch270067-bib-0002\"], \"section\": \"Introduction\", \"text\": \"Access to water and energy remains one of the most pressing challenges in many African countries, particularly in Mozambique, where large segments of the population still lack reliable, affordable, and sustainable services [1, 2].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0003\", \"gch270067-bib-0004\"], \"section\": \"Introduction\", \"text\": \"The interdependence between water and energy, commonly referred to as the water\\u2010energy nexus, is further exacerbated by climate vulnerability, institutional fragmentation, and pronounced socioeconomic inequalities. Tackling this nexus requires integrated, low\\u2010cost, and context\\u2010specific solutions that are both technically feasible and socially acceptable [3, 4].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0005\", \"gch270067-bib-0006\", \"gch270067-bib-0007\", \"gch270067-bib-0008\", \"gch270067-bib-0009\", \"gch270067-bib-0010\", \"gch270067-bib-0011\", \"gch270067-bib-0011\"], \"section\": \"Introduction\", \"text\": \"In this context, the transition toward a circular economy offers a strategic opportunity to mitigate environmental degradation while simultaneously enhancing resource efficiency, promoting local empowerment, and fostering climate resilience. The valorization of agricultural residues and by\\u2010products, such as their transformation into bioenergy, biofertilizers, or soil amendments, can play a key role in improving access to clean energy, reducing pressure on ecosystems, and strengthening rural livelihoods [5]. Recent studies have explored the potential of food waste\\u2010derived biochar for environmental remediation, particularly in removing heavy metals from wastewater, highlighting additional opportunities for integrating agricultural by\\u2010products into sustainable resource management [6]. Likewise, circular approaches to water management [7], such as wastewater reuse [8], rainwater harvesting [9, 10], and the integration of water\\u2010saving practices in agriculture [11], proved to enhance water security, reduce environmental impacts, and support sustainable food systems. This study contributes to the literature by combining geographic information system (GIS)\\u2010based spatial analysis with participatory methods to identify priority areas for agricultural waste valorization and integrated water management in Mozambique. The originality lies in the integration of technical (spatial analysis) and social (stakeholder engagement) dimensions to produce a replicable framework that informs both sustainable rural development and local policy\\u2010making. These solutions are also connected to global sustainability frameworks, including the European Green Deal. To clarify its relevance in the African context, the European Green Deal promotes cooperation with African countries through funding opportunities (e.g., investment in renewable energy and sustainable infrastructure), policy alignment (particularly regarding climate adaptation and circular economy strategies), and partnership mechanisms. Such instruments can support African countries, including Mozambique, in implementing context\\u2010sensitive, locally grounded solutions while benefiting from international collaboration and resources [11].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0012\", \"gch270067-bib-0013\", \"gch270067-bib-0013\", \"gch270067-bib-0014\"], \"section\": \"Introduction\", \"text\": \"Mozambique, with its predominantly agrarian economy, generates large volumes of agricultural waste, particularly from the cultivation of maize, cassava, sugarcane, and rice [12]. However, these biomasses are often underutilized or poorly managed, contributing to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, soil degradation, and health risks in rural and peri\\u2010urban areas. Moreover, understanding the nexus between agricultural practices and GHG emissions is critical for designing sustainable interventions. Using approaches such as the C\\u2010vine Copula model, Pakrooh et\\u00a0al. [13] provide new insights into how AFOLU (Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use) activities contribute to emissions, underscoring the importance of linking environmental and socioeconomic objectives [13]. At the same time, agricultural activities heavily rely on water resources, which are increasingly affected by unpredictable rainfall, droughts, and limited irrigation infrastructure. Inefficient water use and lack of integrated water management further constrain productivity and resilience in rural areas. In addition, novel methods such as interval meta\\u2010goal programming have been applied to optimize agricultural water\\u2010land use, supporting sustainable planning that integrates productivity, resource efficiency, and environmental goals [14]. This complements circular approaches by providing quantitative frameworks for decision\\u2010making in resource\\u2010constrained contexts.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0015\", \"gch270067-bib-0016\", \"gch270067-bib-0017\", \"gch270067-bib-0018\"], \"section\": \"Introduction\", \"text\": \"Territorial and spatial analyses, supported by GIS, have proven effective in identifying renewable energy potential and siting appropriate technologies, while also enabling the assessment of water availability, thus supporting integrated planning across various African contexts [15, 16, 17, 18].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0002\", \"gch270067-bib-0019\", \"gch270067-bib-0020\"], \"section\": \"Introduction\", \"text\": \"Although GIS\\u2010based methods have previously been applied in Mozambique to assess biomass energy potential [2], map irrigation systems [19], and analyze urban land\\u2010use dynamics [20], a critical research gap exists: territorial analysis that simultaneously valorizes agricultural waste, supports decentralized energy production, enhances soil fertility, and integrates water resource management within a participatory framework. By addressing this gap, the current study advances the field by combining technical spatial methods with stakeholder engagement, aligning with emerging research on integrated resource management in sub\\u2010Saharan Africa. This study addresses this gap by developing a GIS\\u2010based methodology to quantify and map agricultural waste and by\\u2010products in Nampula Province, integrating spatial datasets (agricultural production, land use, population density, infrastructure, water availability, and environmental constraints) with socioeconomic indicators and expert knowledge. Stakeholders consultations and participatory methods were employed to ensure that identified priority areas are socially relevant, technically feasible, and policy actionable. In parallel, qualitative fieldwork, such as semi\\u2010structured interviews with local farmers, cooperatives, and agricultural processing industries, were used to provide critical insights into existing waste management practices, production constraints, and attitudes toward the adoption of innovative technologies. This ensures that the spatial analysis remains grounded in local realities and responsive to community needs.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0001\"], \"section\": \"Study Area\", \"text\": \"This study focuses on the Nampula Province in northern Mozambique, specifically on the districts of Meconta and Nacala, which are notable for their agricultural activities (Figure\\u00a01).\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0021\"], \"section\": \"Study Area\", \"text\": \"Meconta and Nacala were selected because they represent two complementary contexts, as well as they reflect the broader Mozambican setting. Meconta is a predominantly rural district with strong smallholder farming traditions, while Nacala combines rural agricultural communities with proximity to an important port city, facilitating agro\\u2010processing and market access. Their selection reflects both empirical relevance and the potential for replicable interventions addressing the water\\u2013energy nexus. Nampula Province, covering an area of 79\\u00a0010 km2, is the most populous province in Mozambique, with a population of approximately 5.76 million people. The province is characterized by a high poverty rate, with 65% of the population living in poverty, and a significant portion of the population experiencing food insecurity [21].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0022\", \"gch270067-bib-0023\", \"gch270067-bib-0024\"], \"section\": \"Study Area\", \"text\": \"The study area was selected based on a set of criteria including: (i) agricultural relevance; (ii) presence of smallholder farming systems; (iii) availability of biomass residues; and (iv) critical challenges in water and energy access. Spatial and demographic data were retrieved from the National Institute of Statistics of Mozambique [22], while agronomic data were complemented by FAO [23] and IFAD [24] datasets, including information on crop distribution, farming systems, and productivity.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0002\"], \"section\": \"Study Area\", \"text\": \"In Meconta district, the administrative posts of Vila Sede de Meconta, 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacavala, and Namialo were selected for analysis (Figure\\u00a02). Meconta has a population of 223\\u00a0760, with a significant portion residing in rural areas.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0002\"], \"section\": \"Study Area\", \"text\": \"In Nacala district, the study focused on the rural neighborhoods of Teterranea, Namissica, Nablusa, Mutiva, Mpaco, Mutuzi, and Murrutumua (Figure\\u00a02). These specific neighborhoods were chosen to capture the diversity of agricultural practices, water availability, and energy access within the districts. Nacala, also known as Nacala\\u2010Porto, is a coastal city with a population of 287\\u00a0536. However, the study excluded the urbanized coastal zone, concentrating instead on the surrounding agrarian communities, which are characterized by traditional, rainfed agriculture and limited infrastructure.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0012\", \"gch270067-bib-0012\"], \"section\": \"Study Area\", \"text\": \"Crops cultivated in these areas, such as cassava, maize, and groundnuts, generate significant volumes of agricultural residues, including cassava peels, maize stalks, and groundnut shells. These by\\u2010products are largely unutilized, despite their potential for transformation into bioenergy through processes such as anaerobic digestion or gasification [12]. According to recent studies on biomass valorization [12], these residues represent a potential feedstock for bioenergy production through anaerobic digestion or gasification, providing opportunities to reduce waste, generate energy, and mitigate deforestation.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0025\", \"gch270067-bib-0026\"], \"section\": \"Study Area\", \"text\": \"Water and energy constraints were addressed through a nexus framework that considered the interdependence of resource flows in smallholder systems. Less than 3% of Mozambique's arable land is currently irrigated [25], which makes seasonal rainfall a critical variable for both biomass availability and food security. For example, the Meconta district experiences an average annual rainfall of approximately 857 mm, with the majority of precipitation occurring between the months of October and April, influencing both the availability of water and the agricultural calendar. At the same time, rural energy access remains below 10%, constraining post\\u2010harvest processing, storage, and value addition [26].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0027\", \"gch270067-bib-0028\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"The study adopted an integrated and participatory methodological approach aimed at analyzing critical issues related to the use of water and energy resources in the two selected districts of Nacala and Meconta, in Nampula Province, Mozambique. The investigation focused on the agricultural farms and agricultural processing industries, considered strategic for enhancing the resilience of local socioecological systems. The choice of combining GIS\\u2010based spatial analysis with participatory surveys was driven by the need to simultaneously capture (i) the spatial distribution and magnitude of agricultural residues and water resources, (ii) the local practices and socioeconomic constraints, and (iii) the opportunities for community\\u2010driven interventions. Spatial analysis provides precise, reproducible quantitative insights, while participatory surveys ensure context\\u2010specific, socially grounded understanding. The methodological design was inspired by the principles of participatory action research and collaborative territorial planning [27, 28], promoting the active and continuous engagement of local stakeholders in the co\\u2010generation of knowledge and in identifying intervention priorities.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0029\", \"gch270067-bib-0030\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"In line with the systemic and multidisciplinary approach recommended in the literature on integrated natural resource management [29, 30], the methodological process was structured into three interlinked phases: i) institutional collaboration and secondary data collection; ii) exploratory territorial analysis and stakeholders engagement; and iii) field surveys and empirical data collection.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0031\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"Initially, a collaborative network with local institutions was established, which was considered a prerequisite for the effective implementation of field research. The initiative was formally presented to the Servi\\u00e7o Distrital de Actividades Econ\\u00f4micas (SDAE) and the Servi\\u00e7o Distrital de Planifica\\u00e7\\u00e3o e Infra\\u2010estrutura (SDPI), which provided institutional support, facilitated access to existing data, and accompanied the research team throughout its territorial activities. This phase contributed to strengthening the social legitimacy of the process and to activating institutional cooperation essential for the effectiveness of subsequent actions [31].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0032\", \"gch270067-bib-0033\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"Concurrently, an exploratory territorial analysis was conducted with the objective of identifying priority areas for intervention. This analysis combined the consultation of secondary data provided by local authorities, a critical review of available environmental and planning documents, and a desk\\u2010based analysis of previous experiences in the districts under study. These efforts were complemented by participatory meetings with community representatives, aimed at collecting qualitative information and direct perceptions of major issues related to access and management of water and energy resources. The approach aimed at valorizing local knowledge as a tool for community empowerment as well as an essential component for the contextualized analysis of territorial dynamics [32, 33].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0012\", \"gch270067-bib-0023\", \"gch270067-bib-0024\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"For both questionnaires, clear inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to ensure methodological rigor. Farmers were eligible if they cultivated at least one of the major local crops (e.g., cassava, maize, or groundnuts), owned or managed land in the selected neighborhoods, and were directly involved in residue management and water/energy use. Farmers who were seasonal workers without decision\\u2010making roles or who did not reside in the study area were excluded. For agro\\u2010processing industries, only enterprises formally or informally operating within the districts and processing local agricultural products were included, while businesses unrelated to food production or located outside the study boundaries were excluded. The development of these data collection tools followed a participatory and context\\u2010sensitive design process, considering the specificities of the local rural context, prevailing agricultural practices, and the socioeconomic conditions of the target communities. In particular, the design of the questionnaires adhered to an internal logic of coherence between the research's knowledge objectives and the analytical dimensions to be explored (natural resources, production practices, access to water and energy services, and technical and managerial capacities of local actors). Variables were selected based for their empirical relevance to the water\\u2010energy\\u2010agriculture nexus [12, 23, 24], and included crop type, cultivated area, biomass volume, water consumption, and energy use. These variables also reflect determinants identified in prior literature as critical for designing community\\u2010scale bioenergy and irrigation interventions.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0034\", \"gch270067-bib-0035\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"For the fieldwork phase, the questionnaires were digitized using KoboToolbox, an open\\u2010source platform widely employed in humanitarian and environmental research contexts for data collection in low\\u2010infrastructure geographic areas [34, 35]. The choice of this tool allowed the creation of a flexible, interoperable, and field\\u2010adapted data collection system, thanks to its offline capabilities and subsequent synchronization functionality.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0036\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"Prior to the official launch of the data collection campaign, an intensive training session was held for the field operators responsible for administering the questionnaires. The training had a dual purpose: first, to equip participants with the necessary technical skills to effectively use the KoboToolbox platform (data entry, error management, data synchronization); second, to share methodological guidelines for conducting effective interviews, with particular attention to intercultural communication and the use of the local language. This latter aspect proved essential for ensuring respectful, clear, and culturally appropriate communication with participants, thereby minimizing language barriers and potential data collection biases [36].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-supinfo-0001\", \"gch270067-supinfo-0001\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"The first questionnaire, designed for farmers and agricultural enterprises, aimed to collect detailed information on cultivated crops, the use of biomass derived from agricultural residues, water consumption and management for irrigation, irrigation practices, and energy requirements (Questionnaire S1). The second questionnaire, targeting agro\\u2010food processing enterprises, focused on energy consumption, resource management practices (including water, energy, and raw materials), and the main operational challenges within the local production context (Questionnaire S2).\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0027\", \"gch270067-bib-0029\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"The adopted methodological approach enabled the collection of reliable and consistent quantitative and qualitative data on the environmental, water, energy, and agricultural conditions of the study areas, while also fostering greater local community engagement in the research process. Such active participation is considered an essential component of investigations in rural settings, contributing to higher ecological validity of the data and strengthening local ownership of the results [27, 29].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0037\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"Nonetheless, several operational challenges emerged during the data collection phase, affecting both the timing and territorial coverage of field activities. Chief among them were extreme weather conditions: the passage of tropical cyclones CHIDO (December 2024) and DIKELED (January 2025) caused severe damage to road infrastructure, making access to many rural communities difficult. These were compounded by a context of political instability following the presidential elections in October 2024, which led to episodes of protest and social unrest, limiting operator mobility and significantly slowing down operations [37].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0038\"], \"section\": \"Data Preparation\", \"text\": \"Additional logistical complications stemmed from the vast distances between data collection points and the low accessibility of many rural areas, especially during the rainy season (e.g., from November to March). At the outset, a degree of reluctance was also observed among farmers and enterprises to participate in the survey, due to unfamiliarity with research activities and concerns about the use of collected data. This resistance was progressively overcome through community information sessions aimed at clearly explaining the project objectives and building trust in the research team [38].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0039\", \"gch270067-bib-0040\", \"gch270067-bib-0041\", \"gch270067-bib-0042\", \"gch270067-bib-0043\", \"gch270067-bib-0044\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"The spatial analyses underpinning the GIS\\u2010based model were conducted using QGIS (v.3.36.3), a widely recognized open\\u2010source tool for geospatial analysis [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Its robust functions in data integration, management, and visualization made it particularly suitable for application in rural Mozambique. The model, based on a cartographic approach, supports the spatial assessment of territorial dynamics to guide planning in the water\\u2010energy nexus. Within this framework, the analysis focused on identifying two categories of strategic zones. First, potential areas for the sustainable valorization of agricultural waste and by\\u2010products were identified based on the highest availability of biomass resources, adopting the heatmap plugin available in QGIS. These areas were prioritized for the possible siting of valorization technology installations, with considerations for minimizing transport distances, reducing logistical and environmental burdens, and lowering associated greenhouse gas emissions. Second, always adopting heatmap plugin, critical zones with the highest levels of freshwater use for irrigation were delineated, highlighting them as priority areas for water management interventions within the nexus framework. The raster merge tool available in QGIS was used to identify the critical areas and the opportunity hotspots within the water\\u2013energy nexus.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-tbl-0001\", \"gch270067-bib-0045\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"The field survey yielded a broad and representative empirical sample of the agricultural and agro\\u2010industrial realities in the districts of Nacala and Meconta. In Nacala, 631 farmers were interviewed out of a total of 1450 registered in the target neighborhoods (43%), while all registered processing enterprises (2 out of 2) were successfully reached, yielding 100% coverage (Table\\u00a01). In Meconta, 60 farmers were surveyed\\u2014exceeding the official number of registered producers (54)\\u2014due to the intentional inclusion of six previously undocumented agricultural enterprises, identified through local knowledge and considered operationally relevant. Similarly, 26 processing enterprises were surveyed in Meconta, compared to 24 officially recorded, indicating the widespread presence of informal economic actors not captured by institutional databases\\u2014a phenomenon commonly observed in rural sub\\u2010Saharan contexts [45].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-supinfo-0001\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"The spatial distribution of the sample revealed a marked concentration of agricultural activity in the neighborhoods of Mutuzi and Namissica, which together accounted for over 32% of all interviews. These were, followed by Nablusa, Teterranea, Mpaco, and Mutiva. In contrast, peripheral zones and the municipal center of Meconta showed lower levels of representation (Figure S1). This pattern highlights a higher agricultural density in semi\\u2010peri\\u2010urban areas, where farming practices tend to be more established and structured.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-supinfo-0001\", \"gch270067-bib-0046\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"From a socioproductive perspective, the surveyed population was predominately composed of individual farmers who made up 84.42% of the sample. Organized forms of agricultural activity were minimally represented (Figure S2): informal associations accounted for 9.38%, while structured agricultural enterprises comprised less than 5%. Notably only a single cooperative was identified across the entire sample, underscoring the institutional and cultural barriers that hinder the development of cooperative models. Despite this, existing research indicates that associative structures are generally more effective in promoting sustainable practices, improving access to credit, and enabling the collective valorization of agricultural production [46].\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0047\", \"gch270067-bib-0048\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"Agricultural practices among the surveyed farmers were predominantly oriented toward monocropping, with over 70% of respondents cultivating a single crop. As already mentioned, the primary crops included maize, cassava, soybeans, and millet. Only 27% of farmers reported engaging in polyculture, and fewer than 34% employed intercropping techniques. This indicates limited uptake of agroecological practices, despite substantial evidence that intercropping\\u2014particularly cereal\\u2010legume systems\\u2014can enhance soil fertility and bolster resilience to climate\\u2010related stresses [47, 48]. Agriculture remains poorly integrated with livestock rearing: only 3% of farmers (21 out of 691) practiced mixed farming, primarily involving small\\u2010scale goat and poultry rearing. The overwhelming majority (668 cases) focused exclusively on crop production. The limited prevalence of integrated farming systems in Nacala and Meconta can be attributed to several factors, including limited land availability, lack of technical knowledge, absence of veterinary support, and restricted access to start\\u2010up capital.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-supinfo-0001\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"Farmers in both districts typically follow a dual cropping cycle per year, taking advantage of both the rainy and dry seasons. However, the continuity and productivity of these cycles are significantly hindered by limited water availability\\u2014a critical structural constraint within the local agricultural system. Data revealed a concerning gap in irrigation infrastructures: 61.76% of farmers (428 out of 691) rely entirely on rainfall, which is both highly variable and unreliable (Figure S3). Only 34.92% (242 respondents) reported using any form of irrigation, and even among these, irrigation is almost exclusively manual. This leads to low water\\u2010use efficiency and high labor demands, further limiting the potential for year\\u2010round agricultural productivity.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-supinfo-0001\", \"gch270067-bib-0049\", \"gch270067-bib-0050\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"The adoption of advanced irrigation technologies remains extremely limited: only five farmers reported using pressurized or drip irrigation systems, and just one association in Nacala owns a solar\\u2010powered irrigation pump (Figure S4). This scarcity of modern irrigation infrastructures significantly restricts the productivity potential of local agriculture and exacerbates its vulnerability to climate\\u2010induced risks. As highlighted by FAO (2021) [49] and the IPCC (2022) [50], the implementation of appropriate irrigation technologies\\u2014such as renewable\\u2010energy\\u2010powered micro\\u2010irrigation systems\\u2014represents a critical strategy to enhance agriculture resilience, reduce rainfall dependence, and optimize water use in vulnerable regions such as northern Mozambique.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-supinfo-0001\", \"gch270067-bib-0051\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"Similarly, mechanization levels are remarkably low: approximately 98% of farmers carry out land preparation operations exclusively using manual tools, with only four interviewed farmers reporting the use of tractors or other mechanical equipment (Figure S5). This widespread lack of mechanization limits agricultural productivity and places a significant physical burden on farmers\\u2014particularly women, who represent a large proportion of the rural labor force. In line with FAO (2016) guidelines [51], the introduction of lightweight, context\\u2010appropriate mechanization can enhance agricultural efficiency, reduce manual labor, and support sustainable, climate\\u2010resilient practices.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-supinfo-0001\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"Post\\u2010harvest practices indicate a production system largely focused on immediate sales, with minimal investment in storage or processing infrastructure. Nearly half of the farmers (48.77%) sell their harvests immediately after collection, while 46.18% primarily retain produce for household consumption, reflecting a subsistence\\u2010oriented approach rather than market integration (Figure S6). Only a small fraction (6.93%) engages in primary processing, which is typically rudimentary and often lacks adherence to quality standards.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-supinfo-0001\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"Regarding the territorial distribution of interviews within Meconta district, the majority took placed in the municipality of Meconta (16 interviews, or 57.14%), followed by 7 Abril\\u2010Nacavala (9 interviews, or 32.14%). In the neighborhoods of Teterranea, Namialo, and Mutuzi each accounted for one interview (3.57%), reflecting the relatively sparse presence of agro\\u2010processing industries in these areas (Figure S7).\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0052\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"The surveyed agro\\u2010processing industries reflect a predominantly private and informal productive structure, with a marked absence of cooperatives. The most common equipment includes maize and cassava mills, cashew and peanut shellers, and rice and cereal dehuskers. However, the production of fortified flours\\u2014recognized for their role in combating child malnutrition [52]\\u2014is virtually absent due to limited access to blending technologies and a general lack of awareness about nutritional benefits of such products.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-supinfo-0001\"], \"section\": \"Data Analysis\", \"text\": \"From an energy perspective, agro\\u2010processing activities in both districts reveal an almost complete lack of energy integration. Survey data show that 97.98% of enterprises operate without any form of energy input (Figure S8). Only 1.3% of operator's report using energy\\u2014primarily through outdated, inefficient equipment such as mills and shellers powered by unstable grid connections or fossil fuels (diesel, paraffin). Where energy is used, it often results in high operational costs and increased environmental impacts due to CO2 emissions and reliance on non\\u2010renewable resources. In a few isolated cases, biomass\\u2010 or wood\\u2010fired boilers fueled partly by agro\\u2010industrial residues were reported, suggesting a marginal but potentially scalable opportunity for circular energy practices and decentralized self\\u2010generation.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0003\"], \"section\": \"KoboToolbox Results Elaboration\", \"text\": \"Field data analysis indicates that the total cultivated area across the Meconta and Nacala districts is approximately 831\\u00a0000 ha, with Meconta accounting for 42.7% and Nacala for 57.3%. The most intensively cultivated neighborhoods are Namialo and 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacavala in Meconta, and Mpaco and Namissica in Nacala (Figure\\u00a03). The total annual irrigation water use across both districts amounts to approximately 4.98 million liters. However, a significant imbalance is observed: Nacala consumes 98.6% of total water use, despite its cultivated area being only moderately larger than Meconta's. This discrepancy suggests that irrigation water consumption is more strongly influenced by crop types, irrigation practices, and local climatic conditions than by cultivated area alone. Neighborhoods such as Teterranea and Mutiva show irrigation volumes closely aligned with their cultivated area, indicating relatively stable water demand per hectare. Conversely, Mutuzi exhibits disproportionately high\\u2010water consumption, likely due to water\\u2010intensive crops or inefficient irrigation practices. Namialo, on the other hand, exhibits notably low irrigation water use despite a large cultivated area\\u2014potentially reflecting more efficient irrigation systems or the predominance of low\\u2010water\\u2010demand crops.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0004\"], \"section\": \"KoboToolbox Results Elaboration\", \"text\": \"As shown in Figure\\u00a04, among the crops cultivated in the Meconta and Nacala districts, millet is the most widely cultivated, covering on average 26.9% of the total agricultural land. Its prevalence is especially evident in neighborhoods such us 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacavala and Namialo, where it accounts for over half of the cultivated area. Cassava follows with 16.4%, underscoring its role as a calorie\\u2010dense, resilient staple well\\u2010suited to diverse agroecological conditions. Sesame and beans, although more moderately represented (11.3% and 8.9%, respectively), are consistently found throughout the region, suggesting their importance both as dietary staples and cash crops. Interestingly, some crops display highly localized concentration. Interestingly, there are also cases where a specific crop is intensely cultivated in only one area while being almost entirely absent elsewhere. A clear example is seen in Vila Sede de Meconta, where a single crop covers 40% of the local cultivated area but contributes just around 4% when averaged over the entire region. These localized patterns highlight how agricultural choices can vary sharply even within a relatively compact territory, influenced by factors such as soil conditions, market access, tradition, or local expertise. The result is a heterogeneous agricultural landscape, where certain crops dominate widely, while others remain confined to specific areas.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0005\"], \"section\": \"KoboToolbox Results Elaboration\", \"text\": \"Analysis of crop\\u2010specific irrigation requirements reveals substantial variability. In Mutiva, garlic exhibits the highest water demand, exceeding 250 L/ha, well above the average (Figure\\u00a05). Similarly, pumpkin and lettuce in Mutuzi reach peaks of approximately 180 L/ha and 120 L/ha respectively, marking this neighborhood as a hotspot of water\\u2010intensive cultivation. Peanuts also show high variability, with water needs rising to around 160 L/ha in Nablusa, while remaining under 50 L/ha in other areas. In contrast, cassava and millet consistently require less than 20 L/ha across all neighborhoods, confirming their status as low\\u2010input, drought\\u2010tolerant crops suitable for regions with limited water resources. Beans, cabbage, and sweet potato fall in a moderate irrigation range of 30\\u201370 L/ha, with relatively stable water needs.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0006\"], \"section\": \"KoboToolbox Results Elaboration\", \"text\": \"The distribution of crop\\u2010specific irrigation needs across the neighborhoods reveals significant heterogeneity in agricultural water dependency (Figure\\u00a06). In Mutiva, garlic alone accounts for approximately 82% of total water demand, marking it as a highly water\\u2010intensive cropping system. Similarly, in Namialo, beet represents about 88% of local irrigation needs, underscoring a heavy reliance on a single crop. These monocultural trends can heighten vulnerability to water shortages, particularly in regions with limited irrigation infrastructures. Conversely, neighborhoods such as Tererranea and Namissica exhibit more diversified irrigation profiles. In Tererranea, spinach and peanut are the primary water\\u2010consuming crops, accounting for approximately 25% and 23% of total irrigation demand, respectively. Additional contributions from cabbage, onion, and rice\\u2014collectively making up 10\\u201312%\\u2014further highlight a well\\u2010distributed water use pattern across several crops. Namissica also exhibits a broad distribution, with lettuce (29%), pumpkin (19%), and peanut (11%) forming the core of water consumption. This composition suggests a deliberate mix of crops with varied but moderate irrigation needs, contributing to a more resilient agricultural system. Nablusa presents a semi\\u2010diversified structure: with banana contributing about 22%, onion 19%, and peanut 23%, reflecting a moderate concentration in a few crops but with some level of diversification. Mpaco is characterized by a substantial share of spinach (33%) and cabbage (27%), together accounting for over 60% of total irrigation needs. 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacavala and Murrutumua both show a strong presence of cassava, which comprises 45% and 39%, respectively, of local irrigation demand. Although cabbage and garlic are also present, their shares are comparatively minor. These neighborhoods appear to emphasize moderately water\\u2010demanding crops within a less diversified framework. Mutuzi, despite having a smaller cultivated area, shows a relatively balanced irrigation profile led by lettuce (26%), pumpkin (21%), and banana (11%). This distribution suggests a well\\u2010integrated mix of vegetable crops with moderate irrigation needs, offering a degree of buffer against water stress or crop failure.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0007\"], \"section\": \"KoboToolbox Results Elaboration\", \"text\": \"Data on land use distribution (Figure\\u00a07) reveal that Namialo is covered by the largest production\\u2014defined as the sum of land allocated to both crops and livestock\\u2014spanning 157\\u00a0501.5 ha. The landscape is heavily dominated by millet, which accounts for over half of the land use (50.73%), followed by sesame (20.63%) and beans (12.38%), indicating a clear orientation toward drought\\u2010resistant staple crops. Livestock, however, occupies only 1.02% of the area, reinforcing a crop\\u2010dominated land use structure. In comparison, 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacavala with 139\\u00a0120 ha also shows a major emphasis on millet (49.60%) and sesame (32.71%), but with a modest presence of cassava (8.99%) and a slightly greater share of land used for livestock (2.24%), suggesting a modest integration of animal production into the system. These patterns likely reflect agroecological conditions suited to resilient, low\\u2010input crops, possibly linked to semi\\u2010arid zones.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0008\"], \"section\": \"KoboToolbox Results Elaboration\", \"text\": \"Concerning livestock waste production (Figure\\u00a08), Namialo records the highest output at 25\\u00a0630 kg, with an overwhelming 99% derived from poultry and just 1% from goats. Mpaco follows closely with 21\\u00a0300 kg, primarily composed of goat effluents (69%), while pigs contribute 31% and poultry only 1%. Namissica and Mutiva also report notable total livestock waste volumes\\u20146000 and 1000 kg, respectively, both entirely attributable to goat farming, suggesting a reliance on small ruminants for animal production in these areas. In contrast, 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacavala presents a lower total of 1345 kg, but with a more balanced distribution: 59% poultry, 26% goats, and 15% pigs, indicating a more diversified livestock system. Vila Sede de Meconta registers a modest 200 kg, with pigs accounting for (60%) and poultry (40%). No livestock waste production is recorded in Teterranea, Nablusa, Mutuzi, and Murrutumua, pointing to the absence of significant or intensive livestock activities in these localities. These findings underscore the heterogeneous nature of livestock waste generation across the region, shaped by differences in livestock type, production intensity, and management systems.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0009\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"Collected data were processed and standardized to create a unified geospatial database to enable comprehensive GIS\\u2010based spatial analyses. All surveyed agricultural entities\\u2014including farms and agro\\u2010processing industries\\u2014were georeferenced using GPS coordinates (Figure\\u00a09), providing a precise spatial foundation. This geospatial layer was further enriched with primary survey responses and composite indicators derived from the cleaned dataset, facilitating a detailed, multidimensional territorial analysis of agricultural and livestock patterns in the Meconta and Nacala districts. To preserve geographic specificity, all assessments were conducted separately for each district.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0009\", \"gch270067-fig-0009\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"Figure\\u00a09 illustrates the contrasting spatial distribution of agricultural actors within the two districts. In Meconta (Figure\\u00a09a), 60 farms and 26 agro\\u2010processing industries cluster prominently along primary transportation routes and within key urban centers such as Namialo and 7 de Abril \\u2013 Nacalava. This spatial concentration suggests a synergistic relationship between agricultural production and processing nodes, most probably supported by accessible transport infrastructure and fostering a more integrated agri\\u2010food system.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0009\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"In stark contrast, Nacala (Figure\\u00a09b) exhibits a markedly different spatial and structural pattern. Although the district hosts a substantially higher number of farms (631), it contains only two agro\\u2010processing industries. The farms are more geographically dispersed but still align along major road networks and are concentrated in neighborhoods like Murrutumua, Mpaco, and Mutiva. This pronounced imbalance highlights a critical bottleneck in the agricultural value chain, where robust primary production is undermined by an underdeveloped local processing infrastructure, potentially forcing producers to depend on external markets for downstream activities.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0010\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"The spatial analysis of cultivated agricultural land (Figure\\u00a010) highlights important territorial distinctions in agricultural intensity between Meconta and Nacala districts.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0010\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"In Meconta (Figure\\u00a010a), agricultural land use is concentrated in peripheral neighborhoods, particularly Namialo and 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacalava, which fall into the upper intensity class (62\\u00a0500\\u2013155\\u00a0900 ha). The central Meconta neighborhood, by contrast, remains in the lower land\\u2010use class (0\\u201362\\u00a0500 ha), suggesting limited cultivation activity. This bimodal pattern indicates that only a few areas drive the district's agricultural performance, probably linked to more favorable agroecological conditions or better land access at the margins of the district.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0010\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"In Nacala (Figure\\u00a010b), a more diversified and evenly distributed land\\u2010use pattern emerges, with three cultivation classes (0\\u201342\\u00a0513, 42\\u00a0513\\u201359\\u00a0030, and 59 030\\u2013108\\u00a0395 ha). Key neighborhoods such as Mpaco and Namissica are clearly the most agriculturally active zones, corresponding with other high\\u2010performing indicators like production output and residue generation. The overall fragmentation and spatial spread of cultivated areas in Nacala may reflect a smallholder\\u2010dominated agricultural system and heterogeneous land tenure structures, in contrast to Meconta's more consolidated but spatially limited cultivation footprint.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0011\", \"gch270067-fig-0012\", \"gch270067-fig-0013\", \"gch270067-fig-0014\", \"gch270067-fig-0015\", \"gch270067-fig-0016\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"This spatial land\\u2010use distribution aligns closely with patterns observed in irrigation water consumption (Figure\\u00a011), production output (Figure\\u00a012), livestock\\u2010related land use and farming (Figures\\u00a013 and\\u00a014), as well as residue and livestock waste availability (Figures\\u00a015 and\\u00a016). In Meconta, production is tightly linked to a few cultivated hotspots, particularly Namialo and 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacalava. In Nacala, the more dispersed but intensive cultivation suggests a broader agricultural base and potentially more resilience to shocks or localized resource constraints.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0011\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"Another critical parameter analyzed at the territorial level\\u2014based on data from stakeholder interviews\\u2014was irrigation water consumption, which provides insights into agricultural intensity, crop water demand, and resource accessibility (Figure\\u00a011). The comparison between Meconta and Nacala districts reveals stark differences in both the volume and spatial distribution of irrigation use.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0011\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"In Meconta, irrigation remains modest and spatially limited, with only the neighborhoods of Namialo and 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacalava reaching the upper range of consumption (22\\u00a0905\\u201345\\u00a0810 L) (Figure\\u00a011a). The central neighborhood of Meconta records even lower usage (<22\\u00a0905 L), indicating a predominantly rainfed agricultural system or the cultivation of low\\u2010water\\u2010demand crops such as millet and sesame. This limited irrigation footprint may also reflect constraints in infrastructure or water resource availability, further contributing to the district's overall lower agricultural productivity.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0011\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"In sharp contrast, Nacala exhibits substantially higher irrigation volumes, pointing to more intensive or extensive cultivation practices. The neighborhood of Mutuzi stands out with peak usage exceeding 2.4 million liters, the highest recorded in the analysis (Figure\\u00a011b). Other areas such as Teterranea, Mutiva, and Mpaco also demonstrate significant water consumption (319\\u00a0670\\u2013751\\u00a0350 L), consistent with the district's high\\u2010output zones and crop diversification. This pattern suggests either the cultivation of water\\u2010intensive crops (e.g., sugarcane, onions, cabbage) or better access to surface or groundwater resources and irrigation technologies.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0012\", \"gch270067-fig-0012\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"Building upon the assessment of cultivated areas, an evaluation of agricultural production levels and resulting by\\u2010products was conducted to understand spatial disparities and valorization potential (Figure\\u00a012). The analysis reveals marked contrasts between the Meconta and Nacala districts, not only in the volume of production, but, also, in its distribution and concentration. In Meconta, most neighborhoods fall into the lowest production category (0\\u201363\\u00a0750 kg), reflecting generally low agricultural yields. Only 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacavala and Namialo, both peripheral neighborhoods, exceed this threshold, underscoring the limited productivity of the district (Figure\\u00a012a). This low output aligns with earlier findings on land use and crop specialization, where millet and sesame dominate but do not translate into high\\u2010volume production. The relatively limited integration of livestock and the modest use of high\\u2010value crops, such as soybeans (confined to Vila Sede de Meconta), further constrain overall agricultural output.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0012\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"By contrast, Nacala shows a broader range and higher intensity of production, with several neighborhoods far surpassing Meconta's maximum levels (Figure\\u00a012b). The Namissica area reaches the highest yield class (840\\u00a0184\\u20131\\u00a0025\\u00a0917 kg), driven by both the extent of cultivation and crop diversity. Mpaco and Mutiva also register significant yields (469\\u00a0385\\u2013840\\u00a0184 kg), suggesting more intensive, better\\u2010resourced, or technically supported farming systems. This pattern aligns with land use trends that highlight Nacala's diversified and locally intensive agriculture, particularly in neighborhoods with large cultivated areas and moderate to high levels of crop diversity.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0013\", \"gch270067-fig-0014\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"An integrated assessment of cultivated land and livestock\\u2010related areas in the Meconta and Nacala districts reveals pronounced spatial and functional differences in agricultural practices, crop specializations, and livestock systems (Figures\\u00a013 and\\u00a014).\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0013\", \"gch270067-fig-0014\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"The inclusion of livestock land adds another dimension to the land\\u2010use profile (Figures\\u00a013a,c and\\u00a014a,b). In Meconta, livestock land use is more uniformly integrated across neighborhoods, though actual land shares remain modest. The central Meconta neighborhood allocates 12% of its 66\\u00a0540 ha to livestock\\u2014the highest in the district\\u2014despite specializing in soybean and sesame. In contrast, Namialo allocates only 2% of its land to livestock and 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacavala about 5%.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0014\", \"gch270067-fig-0013\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"Figure\\u00a014 further illustrates these disparities: Meconta neighborhoods such as Meconta and 7 de Abril fall into the highest livestock land use category (1602\\u20134040 ha), while Namialo remains in the lowest. In Nacala, only Namissica exceeds 3700 ha, while most neighborhoods are either moderate (100\\u20133700 ha) or minimal (<100 ha). Livestock headcount data (Figure\\u00a013b,d) reveal that land allocation does not always align with actual animal populations, indicating potential underutilization or informal practices.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0015\", \"gch270067-fig-0016\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"The spatial analysis of agricultural residues and livestock waste (Figures\\u00a015 and\\u00a016) reveals significant differences between Meconta and Nacala districts, reflecting broader disparities in cropping intensity, livestock distribution, and agro\\u2010ecological systems. Based on cultivated area, production volumes, and livestock distribution, both agricultural residues and by\\u2010products, as well as livestock waste, show distinct territorial patterns.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0015\", \"gch270067-fig-0015\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"In Meconta (Figure\\u00a015a), agricultural residues are highly localized, with Namialo emerging as the only area with notable residue volumes (13\\u00a0318\\u201333\\u00a0477 kg). The remainder of the district, including 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacalava and central Meconta, registers significantly lower outputs (0\\u201313\\u00a0318 kg), suggesting limited crop diversity or lower production intensities across most of the territory. Conversely, Nacala presents a more spatially diverse and quantitatively higher residue profile (Figure\\u00a015b). The highest concentrations are found in Mpaco and Mutiva, with volumes reaching up to 157\\u00a0271 kg. Several other neighborhoods\\u2014such as Teterranea and Mutuzi\\u2014also report moderate levels of residue generation, pointing to a more intensive and heterogeneous agricultural landscape. These patterns underscore Nacala's broader crop base and higher productivity, which also suggest greater potential for residue valorization and circular economy applications.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0016\", \"gch270067-fig-0016\", \"gch270067-fig-0016\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"Livestock waste generation follows a similar district\\u2010level divergence (Figure\\u00a016). In Meconta (Figure\\u00a016a), only Namialo again stands out, with waste volumes ranging from 1345 to 25\\u00a0630 kg, while all other neighborhoods produce minimal quantities (0\\u20131345 kg). In contrast, Nacala (Figure\\u00a016b) demonstrates a more dispersed pattern of livestock waste generation. Although most areas report low outputs (0.1\\u20131000 kg), three localities\\u2014Mpaco, Namissica, and Mutiva\\u2014exhibit significantly higher volumes, reaching up to 21\\u00a0300 kg. This more even spatial distribution may reflect better\\u2010integrated or more diversified animal husbandry systems, and potentially more favorable conditions for decentralized waste\\u2010to\\u2010resource initiatives such as biogas production or composting.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0015\", \"gch270067-fig-0016\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"Together, Figures\\u00a015 and\\u00a016 indicate that while Meconta's resource recovery potential is largely concentrated in Namialo, Nacala offers multiple hotspots for agricultural residue and waste utilization, suggesting a greater scope for implementing circular economy strategies at a district\\u2010wide scale.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0017\", \"gch270067-fig-0017\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"Finally, the analysis of processed product volumes and crop prioritization (Figure\\u00a017) confirms a significant disparity between the agro\\u2010industrial capacities of Meconta and Nacala districts. In Meconta (Figure\\u00a017a), processing volumes are markedly higher, particularly in the neighborhoods of 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacavala and Vila Sede de Meconta, where annual outputs reach approximately 2\\u00a0743\\u00a0200 and 1\\u00a0986\\u00a0850 kg, respectively. Namialo, though smaller in scale, still contributes about 23\\u00a0000 kg annually.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0017\"], \"section\": \"Territorial Distribution of Analyzed Data\", \"text\": \"In contrast, Nacala's agro\\u2010industrial development remains rudimentary (Figure\\u00a017b). Only two neighborhoods\\u2014Mutuzi and Teteranea\\u2014reported any processing activity, with annual volumes limited to 1000 and 230 kg, respectively. Processing in both areas is confined to just two crops: cassava and millet. In Mutuzi, cassava accounts for 60% (600 kg/year) and millet 40% (400 kg/year) of total processed volume. In Teteranea, cassava dominates even more strongly, representing 70% (161 kg/year) compared to 30% (69 kg/year) for millet. The narrow product range and low output volumes underscore the limited industrial infrastructure in Nacala, despite its high levels of primary agricultural production. This disparity highlights an unrealized potential for agro\\u2010industrial expansion and suggests a strategic opportunity to enhance local value chains and reduce post\\u2010harvest losses through improved processing capabilities.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-bib-0006\", \"gch270067-bib-0013\", \"gch270067-bib-0014\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"This methodology builds on prior research that emphasizes the integration of spatial analysis and participatory approaches in resource management [6, 13, 14], extending these concepts to the context of rural Mozambique. While previous studies have highlighted the potential of biochar and waste valorization for environmental remediation and climate mitigation, this study contributes by linking residue availability directly with water\\u2010energy dynamics in a geospatially explicit framework, providing actionable insights for planning sustainable interventions.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0018\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"The heatmaps for cultivated surface area in Nacala and Meconta reveal distinct regional patterns of agricultural land use intensity (Figure\\u00a018).\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0018\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"In Meconta (Figure\\u00a018a), the north\\u2010eastern and south\\u2010eastern regions, particularly near Namialo, exhibit the most extensive cultivated areas. Smaller yet intensive agricultural clusters are also observed in the northwest. Conversely, the southwestern part of the district, including 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacalava, remains largely underutilized, with cultivated land falling in the lowest class (\\u226431.13 ha). These spatial disparities suggest uneven land development and possible inefficiencies in resource allocation.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0018\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"In Nacala (Figure\\u00a018b), agricultural activity is highly concentrated in the southern and central neighborhoods\\u2014such as Murrutumua, Murrupelane, Teterranea, and Namissica\\u2014where cultivated areas often exceed 12\\u00a0734.86 ha, falling into the highest intensity class. In contrast, the northern neighborhoods such as Mutiva show minimal cultivation, pointing to underutilized land and potential development opportunities.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0019\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"The heatmaps depicting agricultural production volumes further illustrate spatial heterogeneity across the two districts (Figure\\u00a019).\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0019\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"In Meconta (Figure\\u00a019a), the highest production levels\\u2014exceeding 15\\u00a0200.91 tons\\u2014are concentrated in the north\\u2010eastern and south\\u2010eastern areas near Namialo. Meanwhile, vast portions of the district, including 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacalava, fall within the lowest class (\\u226494.30 tons), indicating low productivity despite available land.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0019\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"In Nacala (Figure\\u00a019b), the production distribution is broader and more consistent, with the southern and central neighborhoods such as Namissica and Teterranea, showing high outputs (above 50\\u00a0348.50 tons). These regions represent intense agricultural activity, supported by both extensive cultivation and infrastructure.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0020\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"The comparison of irrigation water consumption (Figure\\u00a020) highlights substantial differences in water use patterns between the two districts, helping to identify areas of concern.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0020\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"In Meconta (Figure\\u00a020a), irrigation levels are generally low. Even in Namialo, which has the largest cultivated area (157\\u00a0501 ha), water use remains moderate, probably due to the prevalence of drought\\u2010resistant crops such as millet and sesame. Neighborhoods such as Meconta town and 7 de Abril\\u2010Nacalava consume less than 1500 m3, suggesting limited irrigation infrastructure or reliance on rain\\u2010fed agriculture.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0020\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"By contrast, Nacala (Figure\\u00a020b) demonstrates more intensive irrigation use. Neighborhoods such as Mpaco and Namissica exceed 27\\u00a0500 m3 in water consumption, probably reflecting the cultivation of water\\u2010intensive or higher\\u2010value crops. This implies a more diversified and resource\\u2010intensive agricultural system, possibly benefiting from improved water access.\"}, {\"pmc\": \"PMC12776009\", \"pmid\": \"\", \"reference_ids\": [\"gch270067-fig-0021\"], \"section\": \"Potentials and Challenges Areas: Heatmaps\", \"text\": \"The heatmaps illustrating the spatial distribution of agricultural wastes and by\\u2010products in the districts of Meconta and Nacala (Figure\\u00a021) form a central component of the territorial analysis. These visual representations are particularly valuable for identifying priority areas with high potential for bioenergy production, especially through the valorization of crop residues. By incorporating spatial data on land use patterns, cro

Metadata

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